Growth of German Cinema

The film industry was characterised by silent films during the early 1920s. These motion pictures eliminated language barriers and enabled the German film industry to rival Hollywood. Historians subsequently refer to this period as the golden age of German cinema. Ufa, arguably the most successful Weimar film studio, was producing one film every week by 1925.

During the Weimar period, films such as Metropolis by Fritz Lang (a 1927 adventure film), The Cabinet of Dr Caligari by Robert Weine (a 1919 horror film) and Nosferatu by F.W. Murnau (a film loosely based on Dracula) gained international fame. These films were a part of the expressionist genre designed to arouse feelings and emotions amongst audiences through the use of dark shadows, unusual camera angles and dramatic lighting. They were symbolic of the experimental and artistic nature of the German film industry in the 1920s.

Expressionist films were generally successful until the late 1920s. The only exceptions being Germany’s first major talkie (sound film) directed by Sternberg and starring Marlene Dietrich called The Blue Angel(1930) and Pabst’s Comradeship (1931) about a mine disaster. The decline in popularity for this genre probably was a result of people’s desire to see films that could transport their minds to another world away from the misery of the Depression.

The Depression had little effect on the German demand for films. People were fascinated by the production of the first talkies and encouraged to take refuge in heated cinemas offering cheap tickets. Many Germans enjoyed watching a new type of film that had first emerged in the mid-1920s.

The new genre, the Bergfilm (Mountain film), provided escapist plots that emphasised a rejection of the values of modern society. The storyline usually involved a hero living in the rural mountains of Germany who was portrayed as being morally, physically and spiritually superior to local townsfolk. As audiences were encouraged to ‘escape’ their world and enter spectacular mountain settings, this genre appealed to nationalistic Germans who were struggling with the Depression and frustrated by what they considered to be an inept Weimar government.

Nazi ideology would later reflect the Bergfilm’s rejection of the modern world by emphasising the need to preserve farming communities and the bond between Blut (blood) and Boden (soil). Hitler maintained that the most pure Aryans in Germany came from rural backgrounds free from the corruption of city life.

b. Rise of Hitler and the Nazi Party

In 1919 the allied powers forced Germany to sign the humiliating Treaty of Versailles. The Weimar politicians, dubbed the ‘November Criminals’ in relation to the initial armistice they signed in 1918, were implicated in a ‘stab in the back’ legend which promoted the erroneous idea that the German army in WWI was not defeated on the field of battle but by traitors on the home front. The Versailles Treaty involved territorial losses for Germany, a reduction in military strength, the acceptance of Clause 231 (the War Guilt Clause) and the payment of a massive reparations bill. The fledgling new democracy had been lumbered with defeat and a despised treaty.

In 1919-20 the Weimar Republic had to endure revolutionary threats from the left (Communist revolt) and the right (Kapp Putsch) of politics. Hitler, hired as a political spy to investigate small right wing groups in Bavaria, used his superb oratory skills to become the leader of his own party in 1921 named the Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei  , (National Socialist German Worker’s Party) abbreviated as NSDAP, and known in its short English form as the ‘Nazi’ Party.

During the 1923 economic crisis of hyperinflation, exacerbated by the French occupation of the Ruhr and the Weimar policy of passive resistance, Hitler felt the time had come for a revolution. In the November Munich Putsch (the Beer Hall Putsch) he unsuccessfully tried to forcibly seize power in Bavaria. Although the coup was a farce, the trial allowed Hitler to become a national identity by allowing him to give long speeches in court. He was given a lenient sentence of five years by judges holding right wing sympathies, even though had been convicted of treason. Hitler would eventually serve only 9 months at Landsberg Prison during which time he would write Mein Kampf (My Struggle).

After his release Hitler united the party under his leadership once more and increased membership from approximately 700 members in 1924 to 49,000 by 1926. Despite this growth, the Nazi’s impact on the political scene was negligible during the ‘good’ years of Weimar gaining only 12 seats in the 1928 Reichstag election. However, the onset of the Great Depression in 1929 saw the support for the Nazis grow immensely. Weimar Germany became a presidential rather than a parliamentary government. President Hindenburg used Article 48 constantly to support the policies of Chancellor Brüning who had no control of the Reichstag. Brüning’s deflationary economic policy fuelled unemployment and he continued to pursue the fulfilment policy in a bid to prove to the rest of the world that Germany had good intentions and therefore deserved a reduction to reparation repayments.

Brüning’s policies gave Hitler a lot of political mileage. He reminded people about the ‘November criminals’ who allowed the army to be ‘stabbed in the back’, forced Germany to accept blame for the war and agreed to pay humiliating reparations payments. Hitler promised an end to this humiliation by overturning the Treaty of Versailles. Politics moved to the street where the SA, the militant wing of the Nazis, bashed political opponents (especially Communists). In the September 1930 elections the Nazis gained 107 seats in the Reichstag.

Hitler unsuccessfully contested the March 1932 Presidential election against Hindenburg. Despite this setback his party ran a brilliant election campaign in July 1932. Radio broadcasts and newspapers spread the Nazi message while Hitler provided a highly visible presence by effectively using air travel to appear at numerous huge, well organised Nazi rallies throughout Germany. The rallies utilised party emblems, flags and insignia to make people feel a part of a national movement. At these events Hitler used his brilliant oratory skills to build tension and excitement amongst the crowd. Hitler usually started his speeches in a soft tone before using a loud passionate voice complemented by hand movements and body expression to highlight his love for Germany and the need for change. In the 1932 election the Nazis won 230 seats and became the strongest party in the Reichstag.

Despite the massive Nazi vote in the July 1932 election, Hindenburg refused to back the ‘mere ex-corporal’ as Chancellor. Conflict between the Nazis and Hindenburg’s chancellor, Franz von Papen, resulted in a swift new election in November 1932. The Nazis lost 34 seats as it was clear Germans were sick of instability. The NSDAP seemed to have reached its peak. It was approaching bankruptcy and divisions were beginning to emerge within as the SA urged Hitler to consider a military coup. Hitler’s rise to power was not inevitable.

In the end, it was the political intrigue of the conservative elites that handed Hitler power. General Schleicher felt he could control the Nazis and convinced Hindenburg to dismiss Franz von Papen. Von Schleicher’s tenure however was short lived as von Papen came up with his own plan for revenge. After conducting secret meetings with Hitler, von Papen convinced Hindenburg that he could control a cabinet with Hitler as Chancellor. An aged, susceptible President and scheming, conservative elites enabled Hitler to become Chancellor in January 1933. The Reichstag Fire and subsequent Enabling Act allowed Hitler to destroy all political opposition. In August 1934 Hindenburg died and the position of Fuhrer was created for Hitler and the Army gave a personal oath of loyalty to Hitler.

The Berlin Olympics

In 1931 Berlin was awarded the 1936 Olympics. This major international event presented Hitler with a great propaganda opportunity. He wanted the world to see Germany as a peaceful modern society. However by this time the Nazis had made no secret of anti-Semitic tendencies. In 1933 the SA supervised a boycott of Jewish businesses, the Law Against the Overcrowding of German Schoolsrestricted the number of Jewish children who could attend government schools, non-Aryans were excluded from German sports associations and the Hereditary Farm Law banned Jews from owning farm land. In 1935 the Nuremberg Laws were introduced including the Reich Citizenship Act, which defined who a Jew was, and the Law for the Protection of German Blood and Honour, which banned sexual relations and marriage between Aryan and Jewish people.

As a result of the anti-Semitism there were calls to boycott the Berlin Olympics. Despite the US Olympic President, Avery Brundage, strongly supporting the games and Hitler allowing the Berlin Organising Committee to let two Jews of distant ancestry into the German team, there was an attempt to have a ‘People’s Olympiad’ in Barcelona. Thousands of athletes arrived at this event before it was cancelled due to the Spanish Civil War.

In the months leading up to the games Hitler tried to create an image of a peaceful nation by ordering the media to refrain from attacking the Jews and insisting anti-Jewish signs were removed from Berlin’s streets. Hundreds of gypsies living in the city were also interned at a camp.

The 1936 Olympics was unique for a few reasons – the magnificent Olympic Stadium seated 100,000 people; the German Olympic team were the first to train full-time before competition; the NBC congratulated Goebbels on the broadcasting which incorporated radio transmissions in 28 languages and live television coverage for the first time; and it was the first time an Olympic Torch was carried from Olympia to the main stadium.

A total of 49 nations competed in the Berlin Olympic Games. The USSR and Spain didn’t attend. Jesse Owens, a US African-American athlete, was the star of the games winning 4 gold medals (100m, 200m, long jump and 4X100 relay). However, much was made of Hitler’s refusal to congratulate him. Other significant athletes included the German Lutz Long. He helped Owens during the long jump event and was posthumously awarded a medal for sportsmanship. Italy’s football team won the gold medal. A total of 9 Jewish athletes won medals including the German fencer Helene Mayer.

Post-war de-Nazification

De-Nazification was the process of eradicating the influence of Nazism in Europe. It involved removing Nazis from any position of influence and placing them on trial for war crimes. It also involved removing the wealth people had attained from working with the Nazis, disbanding Nazi organisations and making Germans accept the role their country had played in bringing about the holocaust and devastation of Europe.

At the 1945 Potsdam Conference it was decided that Germany and Berlin would be split into four zones administered by Britain, America, France and the USSR. The Allied Control Council issued instructions on de-Nazification in 1946 to try and promote consistency across the four zones. Suspects were to be divided into five categories – major offenders, offenders, lesser offenders, followers and those who could be acquitted. Major offenders and offenders were prosecuted, while lesser offenders and followers lost property or the right to hold political positions.

Despite these efforts, dividing Germany into four zones resulted in de-Nazification being implemented inconsistently. The Americans were determined to eradicate any Nazis from political power as they wanted to install a new democracy. The British zone was in an appalling state given the heavy Allied bombing it had endured to major industrial and densely populated areas. As a result the British were less worried about de-Nazification and concentrated on rebuilding infrastructure. The French wanted to persecute Nazis and exploit natural resources for their own needs. The USSR treated Nazi leaders harshly but allowed minor Nazi offenders and sympathisers to escape punishment if they promised to support the development of communism in East Germany.

Eventually, 21 leading Nazis stood trial before US, British, French and Soviet judges for committing war crimes and crimes against humanity at the Nuremberg War Crimes Trials in 1946. Ten were hanged, Goering committed suicide, one was never caught, six were imprisoned and three were acquitted.

The process of de-Nazification ended in March 1948 when relations between the Soviets and Western allies broke down. This was the beginning of the period referred to as the Cold War. De-Nazification trials were phased out gradually in West Germany ending around 1954.

Source: hsc.csu.edu.au